Water is the lifeblood of aquaculture. Whether flowing through tanks, ponds, raceways, or recirculating systems, the quality and stability of incoming water determine the health, growth, and survival of cultured species. Yet, as climate change reshapes water cycles and intensifies environmental stressors, fish and shellfish farmers face mounting risks to the safety and reliability of their source water.

Selecting the right water source is foundational to successful aquaculture hatchery operations. The source must support species-specific requirements, especially for eggs and larvae, with consistent temperature and salinity, low ammonia, nitrate, and nitrite levels, adequate dissolved oxygen, low turbidity, and minimal pathogen load. 

Availability and reliability are equally critical; seasonal shifts, droughts, or floods can disrupt operations if not accounted for. Biosecurity risks from runoff, wildlife, or upstream pollution must be evaluated, along with the need for filtration or disinfection. 

Infrastructure and cost also matter: Is the source gravity-fed or pumped? What are the energy and treatment expenses? Regulatory factors such as permits, water rights, and discharge restrictions must be reviewed early. The ideal source should also be resilient to climate variability, with backup options in place. Proven performance in nearby operations and access to historical water quality data can offer confidence. 

Logistics, such as distance to the hatchery, should also be factored in. According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)’s 2023 Census of Aquaculture, American aquaculture farms draw water from several major sources: groundwater (used by 1,915 farms), on-farm surface water (1,338 farms), off-farm surface water (276 farms), and saltwater sources (1,282 farms). 

However, data from the U.S. Geological Survey suggests that surface water accounts for nearly 80 percent of total water withdrawals, making it the dominant source by volume. This reliance makes the industry highly exposed to changing weather patterns, hydrological shifts, and ecological disruptions.

As extreme weather events become more common, aquaculture operators are increasingly reporting water-related production losses, disease outbreaks, and regulatory shutdowns. Notable threats include:

• Algal blooms: Warming temperatures and nutrient runoff have triggered more frequent algal blooms that reduce oxygen, damage gills, and introduce toxins. In 2023, shellfish hatcheries in Puget Sound, Wash., and oyster farms in southern Vietnam experienced shutdowns due to persistent algal blooms that elevated pH and reduced larval survival. These blooms were linked to increased rainfall, urban runoff, and warmer coastal temperatures.

• Flood events and contaminant loading:  Storm surges and tropical cyclones can overwhelm water infrastructure and flush pathogens or sewage into hatchery intakes. In 2022, a marine finfish hatchery in Florida reported over 60 percent egg mortality after Hurricane Ian due to silt-laden freshwater inflow. Similarly, in Mozambique, heavy flooding after Cyclone Idai led to sediment and pollutant influx that forced multiple hatchery closures.

• Saltwater intrusion into groundwater: Sea level rise and aquifer overuse are increasing salinity in well water. In southern Florida, farms have reported elevated chloride levels, forcing costly treatment or production changes. Comparable issues have been documented in Bangladesh, where shrimp hatcheries have had to adapt to higher salinity levels.

• Water scarcity: Reduced water availability has strained aquaculture systems. In California, trout and sturgeon farms experienced lower stocking densities and early harvests during the 2021–2022 drought. In Chile, prolonged dry conditions in 2023 limited water access for salmonid hatcheries, leading to reduced smolt output.

Hatcheries must also be aware of contamination from human sewage, especially in areas with aging wastewater infrastructure. Coastal storms and urban runoff can carry untreated sewage into surface and groundwater, introducing harmful bacteria and chemical residues. This poses a major risk to larval health and long-term farm viability. 

Similar challenges have been reported in Caribbean nations and Southeast Asia, where outdated sewage systems and informal coastal settlements contribute to degraded water quality during monsoons or hurricanes.

To reduce vulnerability, hatcheries should incorporate the following resilience strategies:

• Invest in source diversification: Use multiple water sources when possible and explore rainwater harvesting or backup wells.
• Upgrade filtration and monitoring systems: Install UV, mechanical, and biological filters and use real-time sensors to detect parameter shifts.
• Incorporate emergency water storage:  Tanks or reservoirs can provide clean water during emergencies.
• Prioritize hatchery biosecurity: Use fine mesh screens and sterilization at intake points; consider recirculating systems for larval stages.
• Use climate data in planning: Monitor regional forecasts and adjust production schedules accordingly.

Policy change is essential. Aquaculture must be recognized in water planning:

1. Elevate aquaculture in water policy: Advocate for water rights recognition and inclusion in watershed planning.
2. Support infrastructure funding: Push for USDA and climate resilience funds to support well construction, filtration systems, and storage upgrades.
3. Enforce upstream water protections: Work with regulators to address failing wastewater systems and reduce nutrient runoff.
4. Include hatcheries in disaster relief: Secure eligibility for programs like the Emergency Livestock Assistance Program  (ELAP) and improve insurance access.
5. Standardize climate impact reporting: Create systems for farms to report climate disruptions to support future policy.

Aquaculture is one of the most water-efficient forms of agriculture, using significantly less freshwater per pound of protein than other livestock systems. But clean, consistent, and climate-resilient water remains the sector’s most strategic resource. 

Farms that plan ahead, invest in infrastructure, and engage in policy will be best-positioned to thrive in a rapidly changing climate.  

Nicole Kirchhoff is the owner of Live Advantage Bait LLC (www.liveadvantagebait.com), a wholesaler of warmwater marine fish, fingerlings, and eggs for bait fish and food fish growout, research, and restoration located in Florida, USA. Kirchhoff has a PhD in Aquatic Animal Health and was in Hatchery International’s Top 10 Under 40 in 2022.